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• When food or drinks are contaminated, food-borne diseases will occur. Food-borne diseases are also known as food poisoning.
• Food-borne diseases are caused by the presence of harmful bacteria in the contaminated food or drinks.
• Bacteria can cause infection directly in the intestine or release toxin (poisonous substances) in the bloodstream to cause infections.
• When a person suffers food-borne diseases, he or she will show one or more of the following symptoms:

1. fever
2. diarrhoea
3. vomiting
4. dehydration
5. stomach aches/cramps

The symptoms of food-borne diseases may take several hours or days to develop because bacteria need to reproduce to sufficient numbers before they can induce serious infections.

• Some of the measures to prevent food-borne diseases:

1. Keep the foodstuff in the refrigerators to slow down the reproduction of bacteria
2. Practice good personal hygiene
3. Wash the food before eating

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Chemical effect

• A chemical change caused by electricity is called electrolysis
• An electrolyte is a liquid or a solution which can conduct electricity. The electrolyte undergoes chemical change when electricity passes through it.
• Electrodes are electrical contacts which allows electric current to leave and to enter the electrolyte.
• Electrolysis is widely used in electroplating and in the extraction of metals.

Electroplating

• In electroplating, an object is coated with a layer of metal.
• The object to be coated is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply.
• The metal to coat an object is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply.

For example
To coat a spoon with a layer of copper

The purpose for electroplating an object:

• For shiny attractive appearance
• To prevent object made of iron and steel from rusting

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SEPARATING MIXTURES

• There are physical methods which can be used to separate a mixture to obtain pure substances again.
• The choice for selecting a suitable physical method is determined by the nature of the mixture.

Solid-solid

Two different solid substances mixed together such as sand with salt or iron powder with sulfur

Solid-liquid

Salt solution, sugar solution

Liquid-liquid

Alcoholic solution, crude oil

Quantity of components

Sample containing minute amount of components such as food dyes, food colouring and inks

SEPARATING SOLID-SOLID MIXTURES

Magnetic attraction

This technique uses magnets to separate magnetic substances from a mixture. Examples of magnetic substances are iron, steel, nickel and cobalt.

For example

A magnet can be used to separate iron from sulfur in a mixture of iron and sulfur.

Sublimation*

• It is used when a mixture contains a solid substance which sublimes upon heating. Examples of solid substances which undergo sublimation are iodine crystals, naphthalene (mothballs) and dry ice.

For example

Iodine crystals can be separated from salt crystals by heating the mixture until the iodine crystals sublime.

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Misconception 1

Xylem vessels have lignified walls and are often referred to as impermeable

Correct Concept 1

Xylem vessels cannot be impermeable or else nothing can pass through them. The lignin exists only as spiral rings. It is not coated all over the walls. For example, the pits of the walls are not lignified and substances can pass through them. Lignin is only present to increase the rigidity of the walls and provide mechanical support to them, but not to change their permeability

Misconception 2

Both xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes are made of dead cells

Correct Concept 1

Only xylem vessels are made of dead cells. Mature sieve tube elements are living cells that have degenerate protoplasm (protoplasm that has lost most of its organelles). They are sustained by companion cells

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Misconception 1

Gases are compressible because their particles are soft and flexible but solids are incompressible because their particles are hard and inflexible.

Correct Conception 1

In the kinetic theory of matter, we assume the particles are hard and have a fixed shape, even for gases. Gases are compressed purely by reducing the space between their particles, but the volume of each particle does not change

Misconception 2.

In the Brownian motion experiment,  we can see air particles colliding with the smoke particles

Correct Conception 2

In the Brownian motion experiment, we cannot see air particles. We conclude that air particles collide with 

the smoke particles from the haphazard motion of the smoke particles.

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Misconception 1

The oxidation number of hydrogen is 1 and the oxidation number of oxygen is 2.

Correct Conception 1

The `+’ and `—’ signs must be shown. Thus, the oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 and the oxidation number of oxygen is —2.

Misconception 2

A substance is always an oxidising agent or a reducing agent in all reactions.

Correct Conception 2

Some substances, such as sulfur dioxide, SO₂, hydrogen peroxide, H₂0₂, and sodium nitrite, NaNO₂, can act as both oxidising and reducing agents.

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Suggested Approaches

Pick a pet that you once had and write about it.

• What animal is the pet?
• What are some of the qualities that make your pet unique?
• Why do you like your pet so much?
• What quirks does your pet have?

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